Haruka Yoshimura, Ph.D.
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Fig. 1 A Summer
Shower on the Ohashi Bridge and Atake Bank (Tokyo: 35°41′ N, 139°47′ E) from the series One Hundred Views of Edo, Hiroshige, originally published 1856–59 (Image courtesy of the Adachi Institute of Woodcut Prints).
Availability of freshwater resources we humanity depend upon is a dynamic part of the natural water
cycle. The main link between the oceans and land, evaporated water from oceans
returning as precipitation on land, is extremely important. A significant portion of precipitation on
land is formed in contiguous feedback pathways of active vegetation/atmosphere
interactions (http://harukanoor4.blogspot.com/2016/10/returning-precipitation-to-degraded.html).
Occurrence of summer convective storms in afternoons, which last for about an
hour, is an indicator of active interactions between ocean and
vegetation/atmosphere. In Edo, summer thunderstorms were frequent owing to the
high probability of cumulonimbus cloud development stemming from well-designed
series of active vegetation/atmosphere feedback pathways.
Global trends of urbanization
Humanity is rapidly urbanizing. Whereas
in 1900 a mere 10% of the global population lived in urban areas, this figure
had grown to 55% in 2018. By 2050, 68% of the world population is projected to live in urban areas
(UN 2018).
During the 20th century, urban
areas around the world have experienced dramatic growth (Angel et al. 2011).
Today, urban land is expanding faster than urban populations (Seto et al. 2010,
2012; Angel et al. 2011). The global trends of urbanization continue and urban areas are
forecast to nearly triple in size between 2000 and 2030 (Seto et al. 2012).
This will result in
widespread loss of croplands and therefore decline in food productivity (Seto
and Ramankutty 2016; d’Amour et al. 2017).
A widely expressed concern about
urbanization is that urban land expansion will alter the functioning of the Earth system through
modification of land-cover, biogeochemistry (cycles of matter and energy
transfer), and hydrology (Vitousek et al. 1997; Foley et al. 2005; Grimm et al.
2008).
Critical constraint on urban sustainability:
Freshwater resource availability
Water is essential to all life and for
sustainability of human society. Adequate availability of quality freshwater is
vital to sociocultural and economic development in the rapidly urbanizing
world. At the beginning of
the 21st century, freshwater resource availability has emerged as the principal
constraint on urban sustainability (Gleick 2010; McDonald et al. 2011).
In the United States, it is apparent that current practice of water
resources management of the Colorado River Basin is unsustainable without
fundamental change. The streamflow of the Colorado River Basin is allocated to
seven states (Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming) and Mexico, by building dams
and aqueduct systems on a scale unprecedented in human history (Gleick 2010).
Water levels at Lake Mead (in the lower basin, the largest reservoir in the US,
formed by the Hoover Dam built in 1935) and Lake Powell (in the upper basin,
the second largest reservoir in the US, formed by the Glen Canyon Dam completed
in 1963) are declining precipitously (Castle et al. 2014; Associated Press
2018). The water of Lake Mead and Lake Powell is mainly used for agricultural
purposes, hydropower generation and water utilities by many cities, such as Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Tucson and San Diego. Since the beginning of 20th century,
flow of the Colorado River has drastically decreased. In most years since 1960,
the river has run dry before reaching the sea (Malmqvist and Rundle 2002; Gleick
2003; Gleick and Palaniappan 2010), indicating that streamflow of the Colorado
River Basin is overexploited.
In the 2000s, severe multiyear droughts
have hit the Colorado River Basin. During drought, groundwater supply plays an important
role in meeting water needs. Castle et al. (2014) indicate rapid groundwater
depletion during the 9 year drought period from December 2004 to November 2013.
As groundwater resources will play an increasingly important role in meeting
future water needs in this over-allocated river system, the depletion of the
groundwater resources suggests vulnerability of freshwater resource
availability in the Colorado River Basin.
The Colorado River Basin supports 50
million people, 92% of whom live in urban areas. Between 1920 and 2000,
population in the seven states grew 762% (Gleick 2010). The population in this
basin is expected to add another 23 million people between 2000 and 2030 (Gober
and Kirkwood 2010, from US Census Bureau US population projections, 2009). As
large cities require huge amounts of water to satisfy domestic and industrial
needs, a continued trend of demand exceeding availability (surface water and
groundwater) threatens urban sustainability in the Colorado River Basin.
Cities around the world are facing the deepening
challenges of freshwater resource availability. In China, the Yellow River no
longer flows to the sea, as nearly all usable surface waters are stored in
reservoirs by dams for transport to domestic and industrial users in
metropolitan cities (Fang et al. 2010). The groundwater tables of Beijing
(China’s capital) and
other large northern cities are falling dramatically as a result of the
overexploitation of groundwater (Zheng et al. 2010). Similarly, groundwater
storage is decreasing in Delhi (India’s capital) and the surrounding states of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana
due to unsustainable consumption of groundwater for irrigation and other
anthropogenic use, as data from NASA’s GRACE satellites indicate (Rodell et al. 2009).
In the Middle East and North Africa, one
of the cradles of civilization and of urban culture, numerous rivers and lakes
have dried up during centuries or millenniums. The flow of the remaining rivers
such as the Tigris-Euphrates River has been declining and the remaining lakes
such as the Aral Sea and Lake Chad are shrinking. Under the situation of declining surface water
availability, overexploitation of (fossil) groundwater through the introduction
of submersible pumps and drilling of deep aquifers from the last half of the
20th century aggravated the freshwater resource availability in this region
(http://harukanoor4.blogspot.com/2017/04/returning-precipitation-integrated-with_7.html).
Population growth has also exacerbated
natural water resource constraints in this region. Countries of the Middle East
and North Africa experienced the highest rate of population growth of any
region in the world over the past century. In this region, the population has
fluctuated around 30 million for hundreds of years, reaching 60 million early
in the 20th century. In the last half of the 20th century, population size
quadrupled from around 100 million in 1950 to about 430 million in 2007. The
population in this region is projected to surpass 700 million by 2050
(Roudi-Fahimi and Kent 2007).
The historical regions of Fertile
Crescent and surrounding areas have been recently hit by severe and sustained
droughts. In response to the droughts, groundwater abstraction increased to
meet agricultural and domestic needs. The rapid increase in groundwater
consumption with no replenishment from precipitation or streamflow has led to
groundwater losses (e.g., Voss et al. 2013).
Collapse of agricultural productivity due to severe depletion of
groundwater resources and the prolonged droughts compels people to migrate to
cities in search of employment. However, capability of the cities as refugee
areas is strained, as the structural deficit of natural water resources
contributes to unemployment,
economic dislocation, and social unrest (Voss et al. 2013; Gleick 2014; Kelly
et al. 2015).
In the Middle East and North Africa,
there is a long history of conflict over water, as records show over 4500 years
ago in ancient Mesopotamia (e.g., Gleick 2014). The current dire situation of
conflicts and spurring violence is caused principally by the reduced
availability of natural water resources (Voss et al. 2013; Gleick 2014; Kelly et
al. 2015). These violent conflicts do not contribute to reducing the pressures
on water resources but rather miss an opportunity for cooperative water
management (Voss et al. 2013). Many ancient lost cites found in archaeological
sites of the southern Arabian Peninsula from around 5000 years ago (Lézine et al. 2010) may implicate
consequence of conflicts over water resources.
Need for urban governance to improve capacity of
ecosystem services
Urban inhabitants require huge productive
ecosystems for food production, water and renewable resources that are consumed
inside the cities, and for the assimilation of waste that outputs from the
cities (Folke et al. 1997; Kaye et al. 2006; Grimm et al. 2008). As for the
appropriate ecosystem areas that the cities depend on, Folke et al. (1997)
estimate at least 500–1,000 times larger
than the area of cities themselves in a case in the Baltic Sea region.
While cities are supported by resources
and ecosystem services from rural regions, the capacity of the rest of the
planet to sustain cities with ecological services is increasingly eroded (Hooke et
al. 2012). Therefore, urban regions must take increased responsibility for
resource management and reducing impact on the functioning of the Earth system
(Seitzinger et al. 2012).
Urban governance of land and water for
freshwater resource availability
Renewable freshwater resource (surface
and groundwater) is a naturally circulating resource (Oki and Kanae 2006). In
view of fresh water availability, the terrestrial renewable fresh water supply
equals precipitation on land through hydrological cycle driven by solar
radiation energy (Postel et al. 1996; Pimentel et al. 2004). Solar radiation
energy causes evaporation from Earth’s surface into the atmosphere. Evaporation from the oceans constitutes
86% of evaporated water from the Earth. Although only 14% of the water
evaporation is from land, about 20% of the world’s precipitation falls on land, with the
surplus water returning to the oceans through rivers. This main link in the
hydrological cycle between the oceans and land is extremely important not only for
quantitative renewability but also qualitative restoration (Shiklomanov 1993).
A significant portion of the freshwater from oceans to land areas is recurring
through a series of feedback pathways via vegetation/atmosphere interactions.
In the series of feedback pathways, biological processes such as photosynthesis
and transpiration of terrestrial vegetation play an essential role.
In interior hydrologically-closed regions
(such as the basins of the Caspian
Sea and the Aral Sea, the Lakes of Chad, the Great Salt Sea, and so on), the
natural water cycle that evaporated water from the seas, lakes and the runoff
returns on land as sufficient precipitation is critically important, because
precipitation in interior-basin drainage is maintained mainly by the series of
feedback pathways of vegetation/atmosphere interactions. In current practice,
the unrecoverable use of the runoff of interior regions may undermine the
integrity of regional natural water cycle, leading to ongoing aridity through
entire water loss by evaporation/transpiration.
Land transformation results in changes in
precipitation pattern and the ongoing rapid land conversion can disrupt the
water cycle (Pielke et al. 2007). Urban land expansion—creating human-dominated form of land use
for housing and activities of urban populations—has increased impervious areas: paved
roads, parking lots, and buildings. Large geographic area of the dry surfaces
covered with impenetrable materials such as asphalt and concrete directly
influence surface energy balance. In addition, an almost-complete elimination
of the biological process triggers disruption of natural water cycle.
Although urban land cover occupies only
around 3% of the global terrestrial surface (Grimm et al. 2008), large
geographic areas of impenetrable surfaces are distributed on critical zones in
the contiguous feedback pathways. Cities have historically developed within the
near coastal-zone, near major rivers, and near lakes. Most urban areas are
situated in the interface between land and water: estuarine and coastal zones
in regions of oceanic drainage; riparian zones and land near rivers and lakes
in interior hydrologically-closed regions. In terms of natural water cycle,
these terrestrial-aquatic interfaces are critically important, as evaporated
water from ocean/lake converts to source of rain-cloud. In the land-water
interface zones, condensation occurs by collision of moist air of different
temperatures: evaporated water from the water bodies and cool water vapor
released by vegetation’s transpiration.
The condensation process is the first step of natural water cycle and provides
droplets for cumulonimbus-cloud development to grow large and vertically high (http://harukanoor4.blogspot.com/). Current urban
land expansion in critical zones induces unprecedented hydrological change. The
altered surface energy balance coupled with elimination of the biological
process on critical zones causes closure of the primary pathway of the condensation
process in the series of vegetation/atmosphere interactions. This in turn leads
to subsequent disruption of the natural water cycle. Recognizing the link
between land use and precipitation on land, urban regions must take increased
responsibility as part of the regional hydrological cycle integrity, as
renewable freshwater resources cannot be substituted for urban sustainability.
Urban planning in Eastern philosophy to ensure
water security
A strategy of urban land planning and
management to ensure reliable and high-quality freshwater supply via natural
water cycle was considered an important core issue of urban governance in
traditional Eastern philosophy. The art of Ukiyo-e (Japanese wood-block prints)
by Hiroshige Utagawa (1797–1858) depicts
renowned landscapes featuring unique urban design to secure sufficient
precipitation via vegetation/atmosphere interactions, showcasing the endeavors
of Japanese traditional civil engineering that successfully maintained natural
water cycle.
Most changes in precipitation pattern are
not only the result of current human activities, but are based on a long history of human influences
(http://harukanoor4.blogspot.com/). Today, most of us are urban dwellers, and
accustomed to urban landscapes covered with dry impenetrable surfaces with an
almost-complete elimination of the biological process. Unfortunately, we are
unaware of what the sequential landscapes of the contiguous
vegetation/atmosphere interactions look like. Hiroshige’s prints provide guidance for sustainable
human interaction with the urban environment from the standpoint of the
renewability of water resources.
Significant cooling effect of summer convective
storm
Large-scale urban land expansion poses
unprecedented challenges in changing urban climate: hotter and drier climates,
especially in summertime. The elevated summertime temperatures increase
cooling-energy use to compensate for the so-called urban heat island effect
(e.g., Akbari 2002). Heat waves, extreme events associated with hot sustained temperatures,
have been known to produce notable impacts on human mortality. The summer 2003
Europe heat wave caused approximately 22,000 to 45,000 heat-related deaths
across Europe (Patz et al. 2005; Robine et al. 2007). The 2006 California heat
wave killed more than 600 (Guirguis et al. 2014). The heat waves are expected
to become more intense, more frequent, and longer lasting (Meehl and Tebaldi
2004).
Ancient Japanese architects were aware of
the importance of climatic comfort in summer and paid more attention to
optimize all elements of Nature: water, solar radiation, wind, and so on. For
example, Kenko Yoshida (a Japanese monk, Ca., A.D.1282–1350) referred to the importance of
summertime climatic comfort and discussed design issues related to cooling
effects in and around buildings in his work, Tsurezuregusa (徒然草, The Miscellany of a Japanese Priest,
1330–1332): “When building a
house, it should be designed to suit the summer. In winter one can live
anywhere (with any heating measures*added by the author) but in the
hot weather an uncomfortable house is indeed trying.” (Translated by
Porter, 1914)
In summer, intense solar radiation causes
active evaporation from the ocean and biological process of vegetation. Due to
the intense interaction between active evaporation and biological process, large and
vertically high cumulonimbus clouds develop. The
top of these clouds can reach near the tropopause, the boundary in the Earth’s atmosphere
between the troposphere and stratosphere. The average depth of the tropopause
is 20km (12miles) in the tropics and 17km (11miles) in the mid latitudes. In
the cumulonimbus clouds, abundant droplets develop while being swept up and down by turbulent air
currents in the upper part of troposphere, where the temperature is much
cooler. When droplets grow to an intolerable weight no longer supported by
updraft, rain drops eventually fall when there is a rush of cold air.
Therefore, gusty cool winds and a sharp drop in temperature accompany and
follow the summer convective storms. Even on a hot day close to 30 degrees
Celsius (86 degrees Fahrenheit), the temperature drops to around 25 degrees
Celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit), and the coolness lasts overnight. The
afternoon rain is over within an hour, and the sky soon clears.
The evening coolness, climatic comfort in
summer, underpinned the unique urban culture of Edo. The leisure activities and
celebrations connected with 夕涼み yuusuzumi—“enjoying the
evening coolness” were pleasures for the people of Edo. Enjoying the spectacular fireworks
display in the heart of the city associated with船遊 funaasobi—“entertainments afloat,” the most popular
leisure activity during the warmest time of the year, represents the essence of
Edo’s urban culture
(Fig. 2).
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| Fig. 2 Enjoying the Fireworks and the Cool of
the Evening by the Ryogoku-bashi Bridge (Tokyo: 35°41′ N, 139°47′ E) from the series Thirty-six
Views of Leisure and Occasions in Edo, HiroshigeⅡ(a disciple of Hiroshige) and Toyokuni Ⅲ (a close associate
of Hiroshige), originally published 1864 (Image courtesy of the National Diet
Library, Japan). Summer convective storms bring evening coolness that lasts
overnight. The climatic comfort in summer underpinned the unique urban culture
of Edo: 夕涼み yuusuzumi—“enjoying the
evening coolness.” Enjoying the fireworks associated with船遊 funaasobi—“entertainments
afloat” represents the
essence of Edo’s urban culture. |
More rapidly rising night-time temperatures than day-time
temperatures in recent extreme events have emerged as a critical risk factor to
human health and well-being. Unprecedented increase in night-time temperatures
is adversely affecting human health (Gershunov et al. 2009; Bumbaco et al.
2013; Guirguis et al. 2014). Increase in night-time temperatures occur mainly
due to altering surface energy balance. The incoming solar radiation is
absorbed by impervious surfaces such as asphalt and concrete during the day. At
night, buildings and streets release the absorbed solar radiation: longwave
radiation (storage) (Oke 1982; Kalnay and Cai 2003).
It is apparent that regional hydrological
cycle and climate are closely linked.
Occurrence of summer convective storms brought on by cumulonimbus clouds
contributes to climatic comfort in summer.
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Fig. 3 High LAI vegetation, such as in mature forests,
shields solar radiation with stratified
canopy foliage, which in turn keeps soil and soil moisture cool. Deep root
system uptakes cool moisture from the soil and extracts cold groundwater, and
accordingly cool moisture is released via transpiration. To ensure the natural
water cycle, strategic placement of high LAI vegetation with a high degree of
connectivity of active biological process is required from the first stage of
the pathway via traveling zone to mountain slope. As cloudlets produced by
condensation process in terrestrial-aquatic interface zones grow large with
contiguous supply of moisture by vegetation/atmosphere interactions while
traveling toward mountain slopes where cumulonimbus-clouds develop massive and
vertically high by triggering convection.
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Strategic placement of terrestrial vegetation
and high degree of the connectivity
Precipitation on land is the main source of urban
freshwater resource availability. The terrestrial renewable fresh water supply
equals precipitation on land (Postel et al. 1996), a significant volume of which is a dynamic
resource controlled by biological process of terrestrial biosphere. Urban land
expansion triggers disruption of natural water cycle through the loss,
degradation, and fragmentation of terrestrial biosphere. To sustain terrestrial
renewable fresh water supply, strategic placement of high LAI vegetation (Fig.
3) with high degree of the connectivity of the active biological process is
essential.
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Fig. 4 (a) Location of Edo. A: Imperial Palace; B:
Inokashira-no ike Pond; C: Hamura, water intake point from Tama-gawa River; D:
Koganei along Tamagawa-jyosui aqueduct. (b) Locations Hiroshige depicts. a: Edo
Castle; b: Nihon-bashi district; c: brackish zone of Sumida-gawa River; d:
ancient estuary of Sumida-gawa River; e: reclaimed marsh land; f: Ryogoku-bashi
Bridge; g: Atake Bank; h: Camellia Hill along Kanda-jyosui aqueduct; i: Storage
and distribution center of Tamagawa-jyosui aqueduct at Yotsuya-mon gate, (Image
courtesy of the 4th edition of Meyers Konversations-lexikon, 1885–90).
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History of Edo
Edo (lit., bay-entrance or estuary) is
the former name of the Japanese capital Tokyo (35°41′N, 139°45′E) developed at estuaries of Tone-gawa
River system that originated from northern mountain ranges (Fig. 4a). In the
downstream, ancient Tone-gawa River was a low gradient; broader reach of the
floodplain was replete with oxbows and backwaters, vestiges of former channels.
In its delta, a complicated deltaic morphology of the distributary networks
developed together with meandering streams with no firm channels.
Edo (Tokyo) lies on the shores of Edo
(Tokyo) Bay, where vast tracts of mudflats formed in intertidal areas as a
result of deposition of sediment. Because the shallow water provided natural
resources such as food and the sheltered bay was a natural harbor for commerce
and communication, this area was settled from ancient times. In 1877, the
American scholar Edward S. Morse (1838–1925) excavated the first “shell mound,” known as “Omori Kaizuka,” dating back from
around 4,000–2,350 years ago It
contained sea-shells, ceramics and sculpture of religious significance. The
archaeological survey shows the ancient settlements in the coastline.
A legend in Japan’s first written records, the Kojiki
(古事記, Records
of Ancient Matters, A.D.711–712) and Nihon
shoki (日本書記, The Chronicles
of Japan, finished in 720) dating from the 6th to the 8th centuries,
indicates that the coastline zones were of strategic importance for ocean
commerce and communication, and gateways to hinterland, at those times: When
Prince Yamato-Takeru, commanded to quell some tribes rising in the eastern
provinces, was crossing what would become Edo Bay in boats a storm blew up. In
order to appease Ryujin (龍神, the Japanese mythological god of ocean/sea who ruled water flow and
ocean-atmosphere interaction, typically portrayed as a sea-dwelling dragon),
Princess Ototachibana sacrificed herself by leaping into the seething waves.
When the prince reached a small islet shore among marshes safely, he looked
back to where she had died and exclaimed “Aa tsuma 吾妻”—“Oh, my wife.” The word “Azuma,” a poetic name for
all the eastern provinces and for the East in general, has the legendary
explanation.
From the legendary era onward, the
estuary zones on the bay developed as important center of commerce and
communication.
Dokan Ota (1432–1486), a Japanese military strategist and
architect, planned the urban development of Edo and built Edo Castle (now the
Imperial Palace) in 1456–1457. This had been
the site of a dry plateau covered with a thick layer of volcanic parent
materials originating from surrounding volcanoes, nearby a natural harbor at a
cove, in which he constructed ports (Endoh 2004).
Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542–1616) settled in
the Edo Castle (Fig. 4a, b) in 1590, and after establishing his Shogunate
(military governing dynasty) in 1603, used it as its headquarters; while the
emperor was maintained as symbolic head of state residing in Kyoto. During the
Tokugawa Shogunate (1603–1868), Edo grew to
become the largest city in the world at the time, estimated population of over
1,000,000 by 1721 (Sansom 1963; Uspensky 2003).
Unlike other urban planning in the
Eurasian continent (ca., Sumerian civilization city of Uruk along the
Euphrates, walled city of Xi’an in China), city
fortification was designed by moat complex for defense (Fig. 4b). The
Sumida-gawa River (Fig. 4a, b), then simply called the Great River, ran along
the eastern edge of the political center of Edo. When Ieyasu settled in the Edo
Castle in 1590, the eastern edge was coastline interfacing Edo Bay and large
tracts of salt marshes, mud flats and tidal shallows extended along the bay
(Endoh 2004).
Perspective views of sequential rain-cloud
formation pathway
Hiroshige illustrated many prints highlighting
the sequence of rain-cloud formation pathway from first location of the pathway
via traveling zone of developing cloud to the far-away mountain in a picture
plane. Owing to his samurai background—Hiroshige’s
father was the son of Tokuemon Tanaka, who held a position of considerable
importance in the service of the powerful Tsugaru family in Mutsu (present-day
Aomori prefecture) (Oka, translated by Jones 1992), Hiroshige probably had
knowledge of the conceptual framework for
design and urban planning in Eastern philosophy.
Although Western-style vanishing point
perspective was already introduced to Japan, Hiroshige employed the Japanese
perspective, which positioned far-away mountain higher on the picture plane
(Fig. 5, 6, 7, 8). These prints, vertical composition culminated in a distant
mountain, seem to be a type of diagram that represents flow of process of
rain-cloud formation.
In these prints, Hiroshige organized
space on unique principles: he positioned the first stage of rain-cloud formation pathway in the
foreground in best view; he scaled the important far-away mountain figure
larger than actual visibility (Fig. 5, 6, 7, 8, 10); he arranged the location
of the mountain (Fig. 7); he sometimes superimposed two pictures from different
angles: e.g., in Fig. 8, he placed the far-away mountains (the Nikko mountain
range) with their most familiar characteristic silhouette on the foreground
fountain landscape (the Inokashira-no ike Pond), depicted from different
angles.
In his prints, more attention was paid to the
connectivity of important elements of rain-cloud formation pathways than to
precise verisimilitude. Nevertheless,
his notations are completely true records of the functioning of landscapes in
keeping natural water cycle.
 |
Fig. 5 View of the Eastern Capital from the
Ichikoku-bashi Bridge (Tokyo: 35°41′ N, 139°46′ E) from the series Thirty-six
Views of Mount Fuji, Hiroshige, originally published 1858. A panorama of
Edo Castle and the mansions of feudal lords in view from the important commercial
center of the city. Edo was an exquisite garden city: the gardens of
temples/shrines numbered some 60,000; the gardens of feudal lords’ mansions numbered some
1,000. Green zones lay undisturbed over the entire city. Grey-white veils of
mist produced by active interaction between biological process of green zones
and evaporated water from coast to the moat complex are depicted traveling to a
distant Mount Fuji.
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Floating city of Edo
In Fig. 5, Hiroshige depicts a
perspective view from the Nihon-bashi district (important commercial center of
the city) with a distant Mount Fuji (elevation: 3,776m (12,389ft), Fig. 4a),
farsighted the Edo Castle surrounded by the mansions of influential feudal lords, 大名 daimyo—“the governors of
provinces,” and high-ranking
samurai.
In 1592 as soon as Ieyasu settled, he
started to produce the moat system extending from the Edo Castle in a clockwise
spiral. The moat system was an effective defense feature, but it called for an
unprecedented amount of labor and took years to complete. Soil dug from the
moat construction was used to fill up an inlet near the castle and the
reclaimed land was used as a residential area for feudal lords. Following in 1603, soil was
excavated from the plateau near the castle and used to extend the land,
including the Nihon-bashi district, for commercial use and housing area for
merchants/craftsmen (Endoh 2004).
In this perspective view, an aged willow
tree planted embankment in the foreground implies long history of the moat
system, almost 260 years at the time he illustrated. Structurally important
points in the embankment of the moat system, such as bridge abutment, were
reinforced with dry stone walls without any mortar to bind them together. The
dry stone walls submerged by moat water are constructed upon closely spaced
wooden piles made from pine trees not to sink into the soft ground. The pine
wood does not rot in wet and oxygen-poor conditions. Conceptual basis of this
method is similar to the technology in Venice, Italy, which is formed on a
lagoon; the buildings are constructed on closely spaced wooden piles in muddy
soil, which naturally preserve the wood from decay (e.g., Branch 1997).
 |
Fig. 6 View of the Heart of the Eastern Capital
form Brackish Zone of the Sumida-gawa River (Tokyo: 35°41′ N, 139°47′ E) from the series
One Hundred Views of Edo, Hiroshige. A large tract of man-made marsh land
in the foreground provided the city protection from waves and storm surge.
Rosy-white veils of mist over the garden city represent growing clouds,
traveling to a distant Mount Fuji.
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Gardens as part of the management of natural
water cycle as a whole
Edo was an exquisite “garden city.” The garden of
temples and shrines numbered some 60,000 in Edo. The governors of provinces,
which numbered some 300, had several mansions in Edo. The gardens of the feudal
lords’ mansions numbered
some 1,000. Although the population density was very high, green zones lay
undisturbed alongside heavily built-up districts (Uspensky 2003).
The important component of the Japanese
garden as “a part of the
management of natural water cycle as a whole” is that these
gardens equipped thick residential forests. In Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, vast expanses of crowns of the forests are depicted in the
residential area of feudal lords. The Edo Castle complex, in view in the
distance, is mostly concealed by the crowns of trees.
In
Fig. 6, the landscape is a view of the heart of the city (depicted in Fig. 5)
from the brackish zone of the Sumida-gawa River. The location was called Mitsumata,
meaning “the point where
three watercourses meet;” another name Wakare’no fuchi, meaning where the streams of fresh and
sea water divide. At high tide, the salt water of Edo Bay would come up river
as far as here (Fig. 4b).
Fortified feudal lords’ mansions at water
fronts are enclosed by crowns of residential forests. Large expanses of
residential forests of the Edo Castle and feudal lords’ mansions lay high
degree of connectivity.
In the foreground, a large tract of
man-made reed marsh spreads. Salt marshes, characterized by extremely high
primary and secondary production (Odum 1963), have provided coastal protection
from waves and storm surge, erosion control, water purification, maintenance of
fisheries, and carbon sequestration (Barbier et al. 2011). Hiroshige depicts
awareness of the valuable benefits of salt marshes to humans in urban planning.
Grey veils of mist produced by the well-designed
series of active vegetation/atmosphere feedback pathways are depicted traveling
to a distant Mount Fuji in Fig. 5 and 6.
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Fig. 7 Sacred Groves of Suijin (水神, Japanese god of
water) at Ancient Estuary of the Sumida-gawa River (Tokyo: 35°44′ N, 139°48′ E) from the series
One Hundred Views of Edo, Hiroshige (Image courtesy of the Adachi Institute
of Woodcut Prints). The sacred grove surrounded by irregular-shaped wetlands
provided protection from waves and storm surge for an important military facility of
Sumida-gawa Palace located behind it. High degree of connectivity of biological
process by sacred groves and reedbeds along canals play a role in rain-cloud
formation pathway.
|
High degree of connectivity of biological
process along human-made canal
While only a tiny proportion (0.006%) of
the world’s fresh water is
present in streams and rivers (Shiklomanov 1993; Shiklomanov and Rodda 2003),
running water is the main source of freshwater for all human use. Furthermore, high degree of connectivity of
biological process of riparian zones plays an essential role in rain-cloud formation pathway.
In Fig. 7, Hiroshige depicts ancient
estuary of the Sumida-gawa River. When Ieyasu settled in Edo in 1590, the mouth
of the Sumida-gawa River was situated here (Fig. 4b). At the time, this site
was an important military strategic point from attacks by sea, as well as
functioning as first stage of rain-cloud formation.
From around 1596, the tidal marshes had
been filled for urban development (Endoh 2004). As shown in Fig. 4b, a grid of
canals paralleled the grid of roads in the reclaimed land of the eastern parts
of the Sumida-gawa River. Thus, the Sumida-gawa River was planned and constructed
as a transportation canal.
Hiroshige depicts a view from on the high
bank in the eastern parts of the Sumida-gawa River, beneath a blossoming branch
of a double-blossomed cherry tree. The aged cultivar cherry tree implies that
the landscape was elaborately shaped by humans.
Strategic placement of “sacred forests” and “forbidden
lands” with high LAI. A large number of
forests of high LAI was created on the reclaimed marshland to sustain the
functioning of rain-cloud formation. In common lands (any land in public
ownership or to which everyone has access), loss of the functioning of active
biological process due to forest degradation occurs easily when every
individual pursuit of personal gain (e.g, wood cutting) is allowed. To avoid “tragedy of the commons (Hardin, 1968)”, land governance systems were carefully
planned.
Shrines/temples were newly built to
protect points of “strategic
importance”; the forests of
shrines/temples were deemed sacred, thus the functioning preserved. In Fig. 7,
a stone torii gate and two lanterns mark the entrance to an extensive
grove of 水神 Suijinn—“the Japanese Shinto god of water who ruled the
element of water,” the defender and
master of the river. On the opposite bank, sacred grove of 稲荷Inari—“the deity of the harvest” is placed.
Owing to its military importance, Sumida-gawa
Palace and a military facility stood on this reclaimed land. They served as a
villa for the shogun family and a military base /garrison, and the surrounding
area was used by the shogun for falconry. As forbidden land, the functioning of
the forests was maintained.
Irregular-shaped wetlands covered with
common reed (Phragmites australis) surrounding the shrine are depicted in Fig. 7. In
Japan, reedbeds had been valued in keeping connectivity of biological process
along streams together with other ecosystem services: erosion control, water
purification and maintenance of fisheries (Kiviat 2013). Irregular-shaped
reedbeds make longer interface zones between terrestrial biosphere and aquatic
biosphere, which in turn enhances quantity of ecosystem services. To create
reedbeds, closely spaced wooden piles made from pine wood were driven into the
riverbed. Pine wood does not rot in wet conditions and becomes hard as stone
when left immersed in water. Man-made reedbeds, wooden piles together with
underground rhizomes of Phragmites, are effective against erosion. Along
with the wetland and by the far opposite bank, numerous “loosely spaced
wooden piles” driven into
riverbed are realistically represented. The large quantity of piles served as a
sort of breakwater, preventing the bank from being washed away by the strong current. The
breakwater piles are depicted in almost every print with shoreline views (e.g.,
Fig. 2, 6, 7, 9).
The man-made canal with high degree of
connectivity of biological process by the sacred forests and reedbeds was an
active rain-cloud formation pathway, and rosy-white veils of mist formed by
vegetation/atmosphere interaction are depicted traveling to a distant Mount
Tsukuba (elevation: 877m (2,877ft), Fig. 4a).
Downstream of the Sumida-gawa River, the
Ryogoku-bashi Bridge (Fig. 2, 4a) was built in 1659–1661 to link the established center of
the city with newly reclaimed land in the eastern area of the Sumida-gawa
River. By the bridge, several shrines/temples were built, and sacred forests
were created to stabilize soft ground by the deep root systems.
Further downstream of the Sumida-gawa
River, the bridge shown in Fig. 1 was built in 1693. The Atake in the title was
a popular name of the east bank, where the large naval galley: Atake-maru, est.
keel length 38m (125ft) built in 1635, was moored for almost fifty years (Fig. 4b). Military strategic point moved downstream
along the extended reclaimed land, and naval facilities were situated here at
the time Hiroshige depicted the scene. Hiroshige may imply the functioning of
the tall and thick riparian forests in occurrence of summer convective
storms.
 |
Fig. 8 Eastern Capital’s Main Source of
Drinking Water, the Inokashira-no ike Pond (Tokyo: 35°42′ N, 139°34′ E) from the series
One Hundred Views of Edo, Hiroshige. Hiroshige depicts “architecture of natural water cycle in interior
hydrologically-closed region.” To protect the
functioning of natural water cycle and groundwater recharge, vast tracts of the
forest land in the vicinity of the pond and over the travelling zones of
growing clouds were designated as falconry fields for the shogun family.
|
Architecture of natural water cycle in interior
hydrologically-closed region
In Fig. 8, Hiroshige depicts the location
of Eastern Capital’s main source of
drinking water, the Inokashira-no ike Pond (Fig. 4a), meaning a pond of “the Top of Water
Sources,” (45m asl). The pond
was fed by seven underground springs, which gave it its other name Nanai-no
ike, “the Seven Spring
Pond.”
In Fig. 8, important elements of rain-cloud formation pathway in interior hydrologically-closed region are depicted.
The Inokashira-no ike Pond was a
hydrologically-closed lake. The thick riparian forest zones are first stages of
rain-cloud formation, where active condensation occurs in summer; moist air of
different temperatures collide: warm moist air containing evaporated water from
the pond and cool moist air by biological process of transpiration. Rosy-white
mist develops while traveling over the uninterrupted forests to the distant
Nikko mountain range including Mount Nantai on the left (elevation: 2,486m
(8,156ft), Fig. 4a).
In interior hydrologically-closed
regions, the loop of regional natural water cycle is critically important.
Evaporated water from the water bodies returns as precipitation on land, which
in turn replenishes the water of lakes, groundwater and groundwater springs.
Due to critical importance of thick riparian
forests and uninterrupted forests over the travelling zones of growing clouds,
vast tracts of the land in the vicinity of the pond and forests of the
travelling zones were designated as falconry fields for the shogun family and
the royal barons, first and foremost three clans related to the Tokugawa
dynasty. As protected land, high degree of connectivity of biological process
was maintained, which in turn contributed to the functioning of natural water
cycle and groundwater recharge.
 |
Fig. 9 The Kanda-jyosui Aqueduct near the Edo
Castle (Tokyo: 35°43′ N, 139°43′ E) from the series One Hundred Views of Edo, Hiroshige. To
preserve clean drinking water, the stream and the riparian zones were
maintained as forbidden zones. The management practice of prohibiting wood
cutting and removal of forest floor litter/limbs accelerated forest succession
and formed tall and dense forests as seen in the far background. Yet, some
spots were open to the public to provide recreational activities such as
admiring the cherry blossoms in spring.
|
Municipal water supply system in Edo
In 1590 when Ieyasu came to Edo, he
immediately started a municipal water supply system project. He enjoyed
falconry very much; yet, hunting in the surrounding areas was a means of
reconnoitering and monitoring. While hunting by a clear fountain (Fig. 8), he
stopped to drink; he tried the water and appreciated both its clarity and its
taste. He ordered construction of an aqueduct leading from this fountain to a small dam near the
Edo Castle (10m asl): the Kanda-jyosui aqueduct (Fig. 9). From the dam, built
as an earth embankment with a retaining dry stone wall, the potable water was
distributed to residential areas in Edo by gravity, using water pipes made from
stone or wood (Ito 2010).
From the beginning of the Edo period, the
Kanda-jyosui aqueduct was the main source of drinking water and it remained an
important source up to the Meiji period (1868–1912).
 |
Fig.
10 The Tamagawa-jyosui Aqueduct in Koganei (Koganei, Tokyo: 35°42′ N, 139°32′ E) from the series Thirty-six
Views of Mount Fuji, Hiroshige (Image courtesy of the Adachi Institute of
Woodcut Prints). In 1653, a 43km (26.7miles) long canal was constructed to meet
rapidly increased needs for drinking water. In 1737, the eighth shogun,
Yoshimune, ordered the 6km (3.73miles) long embankments along the aqueduct
in Koganei planted with some thousand wild cherries (Prunus jamasakura),
which created an attractive spectacle when they blossomed in spring.
|
Groundwater in the newly formed land was not potable due to seawater intrusion. In addition, the Kanda-jyosui aqueduct system remained a challenge, as its distribution center at a low elevation (10m asl, almost the height of a 3-story building) was a constraint on water supply to the low-lying newly reclaimed land in the vicinity of the Edo Castle.
In 1653, the Tamagawa-jyosui aqueduct, a
43km (26.7miles) long canal form the intake point from the Tama-gawa River at
Hamura (35°76′ N, 139°31′ E, 130m asl; Fig.
4a) to Edo (a point of high altitude in the Edo Castle, 33m asl, Fig. 4b), was
constructed to meet rapidly increased needs for drinking water and other
purposes due to urban expansion of Edo (Fig. 10).
The higher elevation of the
storage and distribution center of the Tamagawa-jyosui aqueduct (33m asl,
the height of a 11-story building) with higher potential energy enabled
drinking water supply to the entire low-lying newly reclaimed land in the
western area of the Sumida-gawa River (including the residential area for
feudal lords and the commercial center of Edo depicted in Fig. 5 and 6) by
gravity.
Management practices of aqueduct to maintain
clean drinking water
To maintain clean drinking water,
action/activity to contaminate water or to degrade water quality was severely
prohibited: bathing; fishing/hunting; disposal of any kind of waste; washing
(Ito 2010).
Both sides of the 6m (20ft) riparian zone were maintained as
forbidden land. Wood cutting and removal of forest floor litter and limbs were
strictly prohibited (Ito 2010). Dead phytomass (litter and limbs) is a major
source of nutrients for forest vegetation (e.g., Foster and Bhatti 2006).
Sufficient supply of available nutrients accelerates the natural process of
forest succession, which led to the formation of tall and dense riparian
forests (having high LAI), as depicted in the background of Fig. 9. Highly
stratified canopy foliage of the riparian forests with high LAI effectively
shields solar radiation, which in turn keeps the water flowing in aqueducts
cool underneath the canopy. In summer, the inhabitants of Edo appreciated the
cool drinking water.
To provide recreational activities, some
spots were open to the public (Fig. 9, 10). In Fig. 9, Hiroshige depicts the
Kanda-jyosui aqueduct in low-lying area near the Edo Castle. The Kanda-jyosui
aqueduct, 19.6km (12.2miles) long, began at the Inokashira-no ike pond (Fig. 8)
and then followed the natural course of the Kanda-gawa River, eventually
reaching the small dam here. Owing to the importance of drinking water supply, shrines/temples were strategically placed, while a mansion
of a feudal lord was erected on the hill. The great adornment of this area was 椿山 Tsubaki-yama—“Camelia Hill.” On the right, a
tall and thick residential forest composed of diverse tree species is depicted.
The shrine/temple visitors enjoyed the beauty of the surrounding rice paddies
and the meandering riparian forests throughout all four seasons (Fig. 4b).
Despite being 25km (16miles) from the
city center, Koganei (Fig. 4a) was one of most popular places to spend time
admiring cherry blossoms (Fig. 10). In 1737, the eighth shogun, Yoshimune (1684–1751), ordered the
6km (3.73miles) long embankments of the Tamagawa-jyosui aqueduct in Koganei
planted with some thousand wild cherries (Prunus jamasakura), which
created an attractive spectacle when they blossomed in spring.
Governance for reliable, high-quality and
inexpensive water supplies
In traditional Eastern philosophy,
meeting supply demands for clean drinking water in cities was a key element in
urban planning. Understanding sustainability of water resources such as surface
and groundwater depends upon regional water cycle through a series of feedback
pathways of active vegetation/atmosphere interactions, decisions were made
about urban space design and landscaping. The elaborately shaped landscapes by
humans, shades of thick urban forests, riparian corridors blowing wind over the
cool water currents, and evening coolness brought from summer convective storms
contributed to summer climatic comfort in the city.
The country’s self-imposed isolationist foreign
policy (1639–1854) preserved the
unique Japanese ways of sustainable freshwater resource availability, from the
industrial revolution of the West. Hiroshige’s death occurred in 1858, and ten years
later came the rapidly changing modern age of the Meiji era.
At the beginning of the 21st century,
global urbanization poses a deepening water-related challenge. The Eastern
philosophy depicted by Hiroshige is applicable for urban planning in the cities
around the world seeking new paradigms of
governance for reliable, high-quality and inexpensive water supplies for
people.
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