Returning precipitation to degraded lands:
Eastern Philosophy in land planning and management as depicted in Ukiyo-E
Haruka Yoshimura,
Ph.D.
 |
| Fig.1 Seven-mile Beach in Sagami Province (Kanagawa: 35°18′ N, 139°30′ E) from the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji. Hokusai, originally published 1831–1833. The perspective print depicts basic requirements for the formation/development of cumulonimbus clouds: sequential lush landscapes from the coasts to the high inland mountains with continuous adequate supply of cloud condensation nuclei and moisture via transpiration. |
Droughts, growing food insecurity and consequent socio-economic disruption
The increase in frequency and severity of
extreme droughts is still under debate (Sheffield 2012; Dai 2013; Trenberth et
al. 2014), although recent droughts affect every region of the world, including
Europe, United States, Australia, Africa and Asian countries (Haile 2005;
Seager et al. 2007, 2015; Hoerling et al. 2012; van Dijk et al. 2013; Lewis and
Karoly 2013; Miyan 2015). Agricultural production in some regions of the world
is already suffering from recent droughts, threatening future global food
security.
In the winter of 2007–2009, the
Tigris-Euphrates River Basin, often referred to as the ‘Cradle of Civilization’ was hit by an
intense and prolonged drought episode (Trigo et al. 2010). The consequent
decline of agricultural productivity triggered mass migrations to urban areas
(Chulov 2009; Voss et al. 2013).
In Syria, prolonged drought between 2006–2011 caused
widespread multiyear agricultural failures, which in turn accelerated
migrations to urban areas estimated at 1.5 million people. These factors
further contributed to urban unemployment, economic dislocation and social
unrest. Syria’s political difficulties
and the ongoing civil war stem from spreading water shortage and ever-growing
food insecurity despite other complex interrelated factors (Gleick 2014; Kelley
et al. 2015).
The socio-economic disruption caused by
drought and consequent food insecurity are already realities, which in turn has
resulted in over one million refugees and migrants to Europe in 2015 alone
(UNHCR 2015), threatening European socio-economic stability.
Structural solutions: Returning precipitation to
degraded lands
Historically, a number of regions of the
earth have experienced significant regional climate changes coinciding with
deforestation by human activities. Christopher Columbus, according to his son
Ferdinand, knew from experience that deforestation of the Canary, Madeira, and
Azores islands led to a decrease of mist and rain. Columbus attributed the summer afternoon rains in Jamaica and elsewhere in the West
Indies to the islands’ luxuriant forests (Shukla and Mintz 1982). In the Caribbean Sea, he
must have observed the puffing of cumulonimbus clouds that brought rain squalls
every afternoon. As he knew, the great forests play a crucial role in the
formation/development of cumulonimbus clouds.
Ancient Japanese knew through experience
the connection between deforestation and drier conditions affecting some
regions, and subsequently developed procedures of civil engineering that return
precipitation to degraded lands. Historical accounts of these practices have
been passed down through oral tradition among some governors and village
officers’ families
(http://harukanoor.blogspot.jp/).
The art of Uk–iyo-e (Japanese
wood-block prints) by Hokusai (1760–1849) and Hiroshige (1797–1858) had considerable influence on European art, with both Monet and
Van Gogh drawing much inspiration from them (e.g., Welsh-Ovcharov 1999). These
wood-block prints have sometimes depicted renowned landscapes featuring vast
cumulonimbus cloud formations (Fig.1), showcasing the efforts of Japanese
traditional civil engineering that successfully returned precipitation to
degraded lands.
Strategic land planning and management to ensure
summer convective storms
Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the
important cereal crops and is consumed as a staple food for much of world’s population,
especially in Asia including Japan. As rice production requires adequate water
supply during the growing season, natural water supply to rice paddies through
direct rainfall is most optimal and desirable. Therefore, traditionally
Japanese have paid special respect to the summer thunder storms, afternoon
rains that last for about an hour, as “blessed water for grains’ growth.” In earlier times, Japanese attributed summer thunder storms to the
activities of the Thunder Goblin and Wind Goblin (Fig. 2).
The rainfall that supports terrestrial
ecosystems, including most of human food production, comes largely from water
evaporated from the oceans (e.g., USGS). Ancient Japanese distinguished between
summer convective storms and (winter) frontal storms. The (winter) frontal
storms usually form when
a warm, moist air mass containing water evaporated from the ocean meets a cold,
dry air mass from the north. Conversely, landscapes (forests, mountains and
water bodies) play an important role in the formation/development of
cumulonimbus clouds and thereby the occurrence of summer convective storms.
In order to avoid a summer drought, a
strategy of land planning and management to ensure summer convective storms was considered an important core issue of governance in traditional
Eastern philosophy.
 |
Fig. 2 Cheerful Thunder Goblin and Wind Goblin on their
mission of producing summer thunder storms. At one time, Japanese adored them
as their activities brought fertility. Sotatsu Tawaraya, early 17th
C.
Landscape architecture for formation/development
of cumulonimbus clouds
Coastal zone where two bodies of moist-air with
different temperatures collide
Key role of coastal forests for condensation. To form clouds, condensation is the key
process by which water vapour in the atmosphere turns into fine water droplets.
In the formation/development of cumulonimbus clouds for summer convective
storms, the coastal zone covered with dense forests plays a crucial role. When
warm moist air containing water evaporated from the ocean meets cool moist air
containing water released by transpiration of the dense forests, condensation
occurs due to the collision of moisture at different temperatures (Fig. 3).
 |
Fig. 3 Coastal sacred grove and divine spring from the series Eight Views of Ryukyu (Naha, Okinawa: 26°12′ N, 127°40′ E). Hokusai, 1832. The rainfall that supports land ecosystems comes largely from water evaporated over the ocean. The coastal zone covered with dense forests plays a crucial role, where condensation occurs by interaction between water evaporated from the ocean and cool moisture released by transpiration.
|
Plant pigments in the terrestrial
biosphere absorb the visible range of solar radiation (e.g., Gates et al.
1965). Most of the absorbed energy is used in biochemical cycles of
photosynthesis (Blackburn 2007). Canopy foliage of dense forests having high
values of leaf area index (LAI) effectively shields solar radiation (e.g.,
Yoshimura et al. 2010), which in turn keeps soil and soil moisture cool
underneath the canopy foliage (e.g., Jones et al. 2003). Deep root systems of
the dense forests uptake cool water from the soil and extract cold groundwater.
Tall trees transport the water of low temperature from the root systems to
leaves, subsequently transported water returns the cool moisture to the
atmosphere from stomata of leaves.
Transpiration in forest ecosystems is
positively correlated with LAI (Bréda and Granier 1996; Santiago 2000). Terrestrial ecosystems have
spatial variation in structure, depending on LAI. Tall and dense forests with
highly stratified structure of canopy foliage, characterized by high LAI
values, can provide large amounts of cool moisture by transpiration to the
atmosphere (Fig. 4).
 |
| Fig. 4 Tall and dense forests of high LAI can provide large amounts of cool moisture by transpiration. Urban surfaces absorb the incident solar radiation, which is then transformed to sensible heat. Emergence of a zone of vegetation loss disrupts formation/development of clouds that bring rain such as cumulonimbus clouds. |
Hokusai’s print, Seven-mile Beach in Sagami
Province (Fig. 1), depicts the formation of cumulonimbus clouds along the
south slope of Mount Fuji (35°21′ N, 138°43′ E), with cloud
peaks reaching its height at 3,776 m (12,380 ft). In Hokusai’s print we have a
view through the tall and dense forests from the beach to distant Mount Fuji.
The first stage in the formation of cumulonimbus clouds, condensation
progression owing to interaction between moisture evaporated from the ocean and
cool moisture by transpiration, is depicted as a grey-white veil covering the
landscape. We can estimate the height of the dense forests at over 40 m (131
ft) by comparing the traditional thatched fisherman’s cottages (height around 6 m or 20 ft)
overlooking the Pacific Ocean.
Similarly, we also see the first stage in
the formation of cumulonimbus clouds in a coastal zone in Naha, Okinawa (26°12′ N, 127°40′ E) depicted in Fig.
3 (Coastal sacred grove and divine spring). This print of a sacred
coastal grove shows clouds forming through condensation progression due to the
collision of moisture at two different temperatures, a warmer one from ocean
evaporation and a cooler one from transpiration. Grey-white veils of mist
produced over the ocean surface is depicted traveling inland as sea breezes
blow up along the coastal hills, where the mist is converted to clouds.
Hokusai visualized the function of
coastal dense forests in condensation progression, which is an important part
of regional water cycle.
Never-ending supply of cloud condensation nuclei from landscapes
Never-ending supply of cloud condensation nuclei from landscapes
Salt from salt spray produced by breaking waves. Water vapour will
not condense in air if there are not enough condensation nuclei upon which water vapour can condense. Over the ocean surface, the
most common condensation nuclei is salt from salt spray by breaking waves
(e.g., Hudson et al. 2011).
The great wave off Kanagawa by Hokusai is one
of the best known works of Japanese art in the world. It depicts a huge wave
threatening three boats off the coast of Kanagawa (Fig. 1), while Mount Fuji is
glimpsed in the deep distance. The clouds seen above Mount Fuji seem to be
cumulonimbus.
From a
viewpoint of regional water cycle, it depicts a landscape of condensation
nuclei supply for formation of cumulonimbus clouds. In Hokusai’s
print, we have a view of enormous spray droplets ejected from the crest of the
breaking waves and the airborne salt particles merging into cumulonimbus
clouds. Breaking waves located near coastlines contribute condensation nuclei
supply for formation of cumulonimbus clouds.
 |
Fig. 5 The great wave off Kanagawa from the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji. Hokusai, originally published 1831–1833. (Image courtesy of the Adachi Institute of Woodcut Prints). Breaking waves located near coastlines contribute condensation nuclei supply for formation of cumulonimbus clouds. |
Supply of cloud condensation nuclei from forests. Over the land
surface, forests in physiological process emit large quantities of volatile
organic compounds (e.g., terpenes), which condense to form organic aerosols via
photo-oxidation (Claeys et al. 2004). The organic aerosols, ubiquitous
component of atmospheric aerosols, act as cloud condensation nuclei (Kavouras
et al. 1998).
In terrestrial zone, condensation occurs
when an area of evaporated water from seas, lakes and rivers collides with cool
moisture of transpiration from dense forests, along with a supply of cloud
condensation nuclei (large quantities of organic aerosols from dense forests).
Hokusai’s print, Mishima pass in Kai province (Fig.
6), depicts development of cumulonimbus clouds over a highland piedmont area of
Mount Fuji (about 32 km (20 miles) from coast). The Mishima pass (35°23′ N, 138°51′ E; altitude 1,104 m
or
3,622 ft), adjacent to Lake
Yamanaka (with an area of 6.49 km2), is a passage of strategic
importance, connecting the southern coastal province and northern piedmont area
of Mount Fuji. While Lake Yamanaka is concealed, cumulonimbus clouds are
depicted above the dense riparian forests of the lake (right), where evaporated
water from the lake meets cool moisture of transpiration with cloud
condensation nuclei released from the forests.
 |
| Fig. 6 Mishima pass in Kai province from the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji. Hokusai, originally published 1831–1833. Development of cumulonimbus clouds requires continuous supply of cool moisture of transpiration and cloud condensation nuclei via terrestrial ecosystems, from the coast to high mountains. For active transpiration and cloud condensation nuclei supply, wetlands (streams and lakes) provide natural irrigation for high LAI vegetation. |
As depicted in Fig. 1 and Fig. 6, the
upslope of Mount Fuji plays a role triggering convection. The turbulent air
currents in cumulonimbus clouds turn small water droplets into raindrops heavy
enough to fall from clouds. Summer afternoon rainfall from cumulonimbus clouds
largely consists of water evaporated from the ocean. To the mountain slope, sea
breeze conveys abundant moisture condensed in the coastal zone. To travel to
the mountain slope, a continuous supply of cool moisture from transpiration and
cloud condensation nuclei from forests is a basic requirement. Heavy air
containing abundant moisture droplets passes over vegetation cover to the
mountain slope.
Conversely, emergence of a zone of
vegetation loss (e.g., due to urbanization) disrupts the movement of the rich
moist air from the coast to the mountain slope due to the loss of transpiration
and lack of cloud condensation nuclei. Urban surfaces absorb the incident solar
radiation, which is then transformed to sensible heat (Fig. 4). When air with
abundant moisture droplets from the coast meets an area of hot air from urban
structures, this may cause water particles from the coast to shrink by
evaporation. Therefore, vegetation loss induces collapse of the
formation/development of cumulonimbus clouds.
Fig. 6 depicts an inland landscape to
ensure development of cumulonimbus clouds. Dense forests and a giant tree with
high LAI release cool moisture of transpiration and cloud condensation nuclei.
For active transpiration and cloud condensation nuclei supply, high LAI
vegetation requires adequate water. Infiltration from wetlands such as streams
and lakes provides a low-cost, self-sufficient natural irrigation. In this
print, a meandering stream from Mount Fuji contributes natural irrigation for
terrestrial ecosystems. A traveler relaxing with a foot-bath depicted in Fig. 6
implies cold stream water and the cooling effect of the giant tree shade.
Supply of cloud condensation nuclei from volcanoes. It is well
recognized that smoke particles from volcanoes or fires act as cloud
condensation nuclei (e.g., NOAA). Mount Fuji is currently classified as active
with a low risk of eruption. However, classical Japanese literature shows that
Mount Fuji had been spewing a spectacular plume of smoke into the atmosphere at
least during 800–1190 AD. Ancient Japanese recognized that the plume of smoke from
volcanoes activates rainfall. Water droplets of cumulonimbus clouds carried by
up-currents of air generated from the smoke plume travel upward where the
temperature is much cooler, where additional condensation nuclei of smoke from
Mount Fuji accumulate.
In Shingon Buddhism (真言宗, meaning “True Words”) founded by Kūkai (空海, 774–835), a rainmaking ritual of consecrated fire was performed on a high
mountaintop to activate rainfall over a specific district. This
ritual expressed an early recognition in ancient Japan that total land
planning/management was essential in preserving fertility.
Regarding the origin of the name of Fuji,
legend claims that it came from 不尽
(not + to exhaust), meaning never-ending. Ancient Japanese admired the
never-ending functions of Mount Fuji, as
the deeply forested mountain slope triggers convection of cumulonimbus clouds
and the plume of volcanic smoke activates rainfall, which in turn brings
never-ending fertility.
Turbulent air currents in the alpine zone of
high mountains
The timberline or forest line is the
upper limit of forest growth on the mountains. In the temperate zone of Japan,
the timberline is around 2,500 m (8,200 feet) above sea level. Shrubs, stunted
trees, heaths and meadows occur in the alpine zone, above the altitudinal limit
of the closed canopy forests. On Mount Fuji, small stunted larch trees (Larix
leptolepis) are scattered above the upper limit of continuous forests
composed of larch, alder (Alnus maximoviczii), and fir (Abies
veitchii).
Mountain upslope winds transport moisture
air of abundant droplets along the slope with condensation nuclei from forests,
thus the droplets increase and/or coalesce with each other to form larger and
heavier droplets. Massive moisture air containing abundant heavy droplets
generates a downward air current due to gravity. In cumulonimbus clouds,
abundant heavy droplets are swept up and down by turbulent air currents. When
droplets grow to an intolerable weight no longer supported by updraft,
raindrops eventually fall from clouds.
In Fig. 7, densely forested mountain ridge behind
Mount Fuji implies the timberline with cumulonimbus clouds developing over the
alpine zone. A bolt of lightning indicates that a summer convective storm with
thunder and lightning occurs beneath the summit.
 |
| Fig. 7 Summer convective storm beneath the summit, from the series Thirty-Six Views of Mount Fuji. Hokusai, originally published 1831–1833. (Image courtesy of the Adachi Institute of Woodcut Prints). The upslope of high mountains plays a role triggering convection of cumulonimbus clouds. Abundant water droplets are swept up and down in the turbulent air currents in cumulonimbus clouds to reach raindrop size heavy enough to fall from clouds. |
Since ancient times, high mountains
including Mount Fuji have been the subject of religious worship because of
their crucial role in the occurrence of precipitation due to interaction
between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems. Since ancient times, alpine
zones of high mountains have been recognized as a special place to experience
turbulent air currents in cumulonimbus clouds.
Shugendo (修験道, meaning “the path of
training and testing”), founded by En no
Ozunu (役小角
or En no Gyoja 役行者, 634–701), is the primary organizing force for sacred mountains. Sacred
mountains were maintained as forbidden land over a millennium, and only shugenja (修験者, Shugendo
practitioners) were allowed to enter these areas. En no Ozunu understood “the tragedy of the
commons” (Hardin, 1968),
whereby degradation of natural resources (in particular, deforestation of high
mountains) occurs in the pursuit of profit, resulting in changes in
precipitation patterns (e.g., drought, disappearance of the summer convective
storms, occasional torrential rain due to frontal storms). Well-educated
followers of Shugendo at the time contributed to total land planning and
management, helping to ensure a clean fresh water supply from the regional
hydrological cycle and thus providing food security. To avoid “the tragedy of the
commons,” they designated
strategic points in the interaction between the atmosphere and terrestrial
ecosystems as holy places. These were worshiped by people, dense forests, giant
trees and high mountains (such as holy Mount Fuji) were deemed sacred, thus
their function preserved over a millennium.
Strategic land planning and management for
returning precipitation to degraded lands
Sequentiality of lush landscapes from the
coasts towards inland
areas up to the high mountains is essential for the formation/development of
cumulonimbus clouds. Cloud formation by the interaction between evaporated
water from oceans and landscapes (transpiration from terrestrial vegetation,
cloud condensation nuclei supply and local topography) has seasonality. A
summer convective storm from cumulonimbus clouds is a notable case of intense
interaction between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems.
To return precipitation to degraded
lands, comprehensive strategies of land planning and management are crucial.
The most important point being, as Hokusai’s prints depict, an effective strategy to
return precipitation by restoring the regional hydrological cycle has been
tested and proofed over a millennium in Japan. As droughts in water scarcity
regions are posing a serious threat to socio-economic stability and increase
risks of regional and international conflicts, new approaches to land planning
and management are urgently required.
Geographical distribution of vegetation
and high vegetation biomass characterized by high LAI values determine regional
hydrological cycle that evaporated water from the oceans, seas, lakes and
rivers returns via rainfall (precipitation). If each person in the world’s population of 7.4
billion people (June 2016) removes and/or decreases the amount of vegetation
biomass in only a very small nearby area, most of the earth’s vegetation cover
would be altered. Vegetation alteration in geographical distribution and
biomass decrease disrupts the interaction between the atmosphere and
terrestrial vegetated ecosystems. Thus, public awareness is critical for early realization of returning precipitation to
degraded lands.
Governance for sustainable water supply
is the core issue for socio-economic stability. The occurrence of precipitation
by interaction between the atmosphere and terrestrial ecosystems ensures a
sustainable supply of clean freshwater, which underpin agricultural
productivity and contribute to socio-economic stability. To reduce the risk of
drought, comprehensive investment in shaping sequential lush landscapes
specific to the region is an urgent matter, a goal accomplished through the
education and training of a significant workforce of skilled people to manage
the task, in addition to a campaign of broad public awareness.
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